A Brief Study on the Engrossment and Distribution of Magna Carta of 1215
CHEN Zhijian
Since Sir Blackstone, Scholars have done many useful explorations on the version, text, and influence of Magna Carta of 1215, but there are still doubts about the engrossment and distribution of Magna Carta of 1215, such as: Why did the four surviving originals use different scripts, were they authoritative original versions, and were they all engrossed by the scribes of Royal Chancery? Using paleographical and diplomatic methods to examine the four original documents (Ci, Cii, L and S) of Magna Carta of 1215, it can be found that although the four documents are different in appearance and format, but they are all authoritative original versions. Upon further observation, it can be found that Ci and Cii were engrossed by the scribes of Royal Chancery, while L and S were not, and they may be engrossed by the scribes working for local bishops. Not only that, Ci’s destination is not the Cinque Ports as previously thought, but the Cathedral of Canterbury. Based on the above understanding, the process of engrossment and distribution of Magna Carta of 1215 and the role of the church in it may be reconsidered.
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The Compilation of Chorography in England and the Rise of the Gentry
CHEN Rihua
Since the 1570s, there had been an upsurge of compiling chorography by the gentry in England. Chorography recorded the nature and geography, traditions and customs, celebrities and scenic spots of the region, which involved land survey, topography, researches on land and soil, and cognition of life and diseases. The attention and writing of the gentry class to natural knowledge showed that they not only managed manors and participated in politics, but also pursued knowledge and tried to cognize the natural environment in which they lived scientifically. While compiling chorography, the gentry class formed a new cognitive paradigm, which was the continuation and development of British empiricism.
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A New Study on the Number of Secular Royal Judges in the 13th-Century England
Zhu Jian
The number of secular judges in the royal courts in the 13th century is an important academic issue. The traditional view is that the majority of judges in the 13th-century royal courts were clerics; the main reason is that in the Middle Ages, the church monopolized educational resources, and laymen had no opportunity to receive education, so they were not qualified to be judges. However, this is not the case when re-examining the background of the royal judges. From Richard I to Henry III, the proportion of secular judges in the royal courts averaged more than half. It can be seen that secular status was not an obstacle to their education. In the 13th century, laymen had various alternative primary educational resources. They could obtain legal professional education or training from their previous local experience.
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The Cognition of the Western Regions in Ming Dynasty：Focusing on the Discourse of the Western Regions in Ming Dynasty
ZHAO Yi and YANG Wei
In the discourse practice of the Western Regions in Ming Dynasty, the Western Regions referred to the place where the Ming government was going to operate and control. After setting up the Jimi garrison here, the Western regions turned to the further place where the government could declare its order and solicit business. Therefore, the scope of the Western Regions in Ming Dynasty would change with the distance of its military and political forces to the West, which could be described as“a foreign land in contact but not govern(rule)”. In the fourth year of Yongle Emperor(1406), a Jimi garrison was set in Hami, and the starting point at the eastern end of the Western Regions was moved to Huozhou and Turpan in the west. In the reign of the eighth year of Jiajing Emperor (1529), the tribute of Turpan was restored, Hami was set aside, and the starting point at the eastern end of the Western Regions retreated to Jiayuguan. The government and the public basically remained the same on the composition of the countries in the Western Regions and the end point in the west. However, in order to cover up mismanagement of the Western Regions from Chenghua Emperor to Jiajing Emperor, the Ming Dynasty created the illusion that the Western Regions had always been bounded by Jiayuguan. Although private works praised the active management of the Western Regions and the construction of Jimi garrisons in the early Ming Dynasty, their pictures of the Western Regions were mostly the same as those in the Han and Tang Dynasties. They probably wanted to tell the junior scholars where the former territory of the Western Regions, and placed high hopes for reviving the prosperous era.
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The Integration of Paying Zi and Paying Ke in Se Yi (Special Services and Corvee Labor) and Its Influence in the Early Tang Dynasty
WU Shuguo
There were differences between paying Zi and paying Ke in the early Tang Dynasty. Paying Zi refered to a compensation for not accepting corvee, which belonged to the substitute service of Se Yi; yet paying Ke needn’t to serve personally, it refered to a quit rent which had the tax nature of exemption from corvee. At the end of the Kaiyuan period, the integration of paying Zi and paying Ke in Se Yi, was not only the result of the interest demands of officials, but also the boost of imperial power to the maintenance of order. The integration of paying Zi and paying Ke in Se Yi promoted the military service completely transformed into the voluntary military service system and contributing corresponding payment for not serving factotum. Finally, from the end of Kaiyuan to the beginning of Tianbao, it formed a trend of loose relations of personal appendent. It started the reform of social and economic structure in Tang and Song Dynasties, mainly manifested in the integration of taxes and corvee, metal monetary and finance, centralization of central finance and military finance. This reform trend is driven by the development of commodity economy, but the reconstruction of social and economic system since Tang and Song Dynasties was the result of multiple factors such as politics and society. Therefore, it was determined that this reform could not reach its aim in one move, but would inevitably experience ups and downs and repetition. Therefore, from a long-term perspective, the researches of the integration of paying Zi and paying Ke in Se Yi and related corvee change are of methodological significance, which highlight the evolution of economic structure in the later stage of ancient China.
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“Tax-and-Spend”and“Spend-and-Tax”：A Comparison of the Principles of Chinese and British Tax System and Their Different Development
TENG Shuna, YANG Shuai
The basic principles of the Chinese and British tax systems before modern times were“tax-and-spend”and“spend-and-tax”separately. From the Middle Ages to modern times, Britain had implemented“spend-and-tax”for countless times in its taxation practice. From ancient times to modern times, the main principle of Chinese tax system was“tax-and-spend”. Although the system of“spend-and-tax”had also been proposed and implemented, most of them were temporary measures to deal with financial difficulties. By investigating the different development and influence of“tax-and-spend”and“spend-and-tax”in China and Britain, it can be found that the different political and economic systems, cultural characteristics, laws and customs have an important impact on the different development of the Chinese and British tax system.
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The Construction of Urban Medical System and Prevention of Infectious Diseases in Russia Before the October Revolution
DENG Peiyong, LIU Lianfen
From the second half of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, driven by industrialization, the process of urbanization in Russia accelerated. The number of urban residents increased greatly, the medical system was established in cities gradually. As a result, the number of medical institutions and medical staff increased significantly, the medical system was gradually improved, and the ability to prevent and treat infectious diseases was improved. The urban medical system ensured the basic medical needs of citizens and reduced the mortality of residents. The promotion of free medical system was of great significance. Many measures for the prevention and control of infectious diseases were worth of drawing lessons from. However, compared with Western European countries, the Russian medical system obviously lagged behind, the medical infrastructure and the matching quantity of doctors showed limitations and backwardness.
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The Government-led Film Publicity in Britain During World War II
MO Lei
During World War II, the development of British film industry and the wartime publicity of the government faced difficulties. The British government incorporated films into the national wartime publicity, strengthened its intervention in the film industry in terms of management system, marketing communication and value shaping, and constructed a film production and projection system serving the national war cause. Wartime films showed the national characteristics, national image and patriotic emotion of Britain, and realized good interaction between media and politics. The British film publicity reflected the strong penetration of the wartime national mobilization system in various fields of society, provided media support for the national political discourse. Moreover, it not only promoted the development of the film industry, but also condensed the popular recognition and support for the national war cause, and then inspired and promoted the post-war British social reform to a certain extent.
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Pay Attention to the Long Process and Stages of Rural Urbanization: A Book Review of The Course of Rural Urbanization in Europe and Its Meaning of Reference
